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Skip to content Uno dei maggiori campi della Bioingegneria riguarda lo studio del movimento del corpo umano, ovvero la Neurofisiologia , il cui scopo è estrapolare informazioni riguardo al Sistema Nervoso .
Quest’ultimo si divide in Centrale (SNC , formato da Encefalo e Midollo Spinale) e Periferico (SNP , formato dalla diramazione dei nervi). Esistono due tecniche che studiano i segnali provenienti dal Sistema Nervoso: quello di cui parliamo in questo articolo, ovvero l’Elettroencefalografia , estrapola le informazioni direttamente dal SNC. La seconda tecnica, ovvero l’Elettromiografia, estrapola le informazioni dagli attuatori, ovvero dai muscoli (ma questa è un’altra storia).
Da dove viene il segnale: i biopotenziali PH: nextme.it Il segnale di interesse per l’Elettroencefalografia è un biopotenziale , un potenziale d’azione che è presente su tutte le membrane cellulari eccitabili e che è causato da una differenza di concentrazione di ioni all’interno e all’esterno della cellula. Questo biopotenziale ha la capacità di propagarsi attraverso tutte le cellule eccitabili e il nostro scopo è acquisirlo e crearne una rappresentazione utile (ovvero il tracciato).
Per essere più precisi, l’EEG registra i potenziali elettrici prodotti spontaneamente dai neuroni della Corteccia Cerebrale (capiremo più avanti come mai abbiamo specificato questo “spontaneamente”). Questi segnali hanno un’ampiezza che varia dai 2 ai 100 µV , in base al tipo di segnale che il cervello invia o riceve da parte, ad esempio, degli organi di senso o dai sistemi propriocettivi. Naturalmente esistono vari fattori che modificano questi segnali e, di conseguenza, la forma dell’onda elettroencefalografica: biochimici, metabolici, circolatori, ormonali e comportamentali.
L’unità: il neurone Ma ora facciamo un passo indietro e prediamo in considerazione la cellula elementare del Sistema Nervoso: il neurone . Ogni neurone è composto da un nucleo, il soma , che è circondato da una parte da dendriti che accolgono il segnale e dall’altra da un assone , che si occupa del trasporto del segnale verso l’esterno e che termina diramandosi nei terminali presinaptici . In generale: definiamo “presinaptico” il neurone che manda il segnale e “postsinaptico” il neurone che lo riceve. La sinapsi è il punto di contatto tra i terminali di un neurone presinaptico e i dendriti del neurone postsinaptico.
PH: wikipedia.it A riposo il potenziale d’azione in un neurone è a circa -70mV ; quando arriva uno stimolo, si ha un aumento di questo valore e, se supera la soglia di eccitazione , si genera il potenziale d’azione . Il potenziale d’azione viaggia attraverso l’assone presinaptico, fino ad arrivare ai suoi terminali. Ciò stimola il rilascio di neurotrasmettitori , che sono particolari sostanze che veicolano le informazioni. Questi “postini” del Sistema Nervoso vengono rilasciati nello spazio sinaptico e intercettati da specifici recettori presenti sui dendriti del neurone postsinaptico. Ciò produce una variazione del potenziale del neurone postsinaptico .
L’EEG registra il potenziale d’azione che si sviluppa nel neurone postsinaptico: questo perché l’ampiezza del campo elettrico dato dalla propagazione di un potenziale d’azione nel neurone presinaptico diminuisce troppo velocemente con la distanza (circa 1ms), mentre quello prodotto dal potenziale postsinaptico varia da 10 a 40ms.
Come viene registrato il segnale: la configurazione 10-20 Il segnale è solitamente registrato da 16-24 paia di elettrodi , tenendo in considerazione che maggiore è il numero di elettrodi, migliore sarà il segnale. Questi elettrodi sono dischetti di Ag-AgCl , con un diametro che va da 1 a 3 mm e di solito sono tenuti fermi da una cuffietta non molto diversa da quelle usate in piscina per tenere i capelli. Sotto agli elettrodi viene aggiunto anche del gel conduttore , in modo da diminuire l’impedenza e, quindi, da migliorare la trasmissione del segnale.
PH: medicalexpo.it Gli elettrodi acquisiscono il segnale “a coppie”: all’interno di ogni coppia c’è un elettrodo attivo e uno di riferimento posizionato su una porzione ossea, che nel caso dell’EEG si tratta tipicamente dell’osso dietro l’orecchio. Dato che ogni esperimento deve essere replicabile in modo che ogni dato raccolto abbia un significato preciso e poiché il posizionamento degli elettrodi ha sempre introdotto una grave variabilità nei risultati ottenuti, negli anni si sono stabiliti dei protocolli da seguire. Uno dei protocolli più usati è la Configurazione 10-20 , una configurazione standard stabilita dall’International Federation in Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology .
PH: researchgate.net Per posizionare gli elettrodi secondo la Configurazione 10-20 bisogna partire identificando due punti fondamentali della testa: il Nasion è il punto d’incontro tra osso nasale e osso frontale, mentre l’Inion è una protuberanza esterna dell’osso occipitale. Individuati questi due punti, tracciamo una linea immaginaria ad unirli , che chiameremo mediana . Questa linea dividerà lo scalpo nei due emisferi: l’emisfero destro e quello sinistro . Gli elettrodi vengono identificati con lettere diverse in base alla zona dello scalpo dove andranno posizionati:
Fp : FrontopolareF : FrontaleT : TemporaleP : ParietaleO : OccipitaleA : AuricolareLa lettera sarà inoltre accompagnata da un numero dispari (1, 3, 5, 7) se l’elettrodo è posizionato alla sinistra della mediana , da numeri pari (2, 4, 6, 8) se è posizionato alla sua destra e dalla lettera z se l’elettrodo è proprio sulla mediana . Il “10-20” sta ad indicare la posizione in percentuale degli elettrodi : Per iniziare, si prende a riferimento la mediana e si considera il 10% della sua lunghezza. Il risultato sarà la distanza tra il Nasion e il primo elettrodo che andremo a posizionare: Fpz . Successivamente andremo a posizionare gli altri elettrodi presenti sulla mediana, considerando il 20% di distanza l’uno dall’altro. Per gli altri elettrodi si segue un principio simile, fatta eccezione per gli elettrodi che giacciono su una seconda mediana, ovvero quella che intercorre tra i due punti auricolari A1 e A2 . In questo caso si andranno a posizionare gli elettrodi T3 e T4 al 10% della distanza dai punti auricolari e gli elettrodi successivi (C3 e C4 ) al 20%.
Oltre a questi elettrodi, ne possono essere aggiunti altri per l’eye tracking , l’ECG e l’attività muscolare: queste informazioni sono molto utili per effettuare una miglior distinzione tra segnale utile e artefatti e per distinguere meglio tra le varie azioni compiute dal soggetto o le varie fasi di allerta/sonno.
Qualche informazione tecnica Il segnale elettroencefalografico è il più affascinante e anche il più complesso da gestire. Ha una natura stocastica : non è prevedibile a priori, ha un andamento randomico , casuale.
L’ampiezza del segnale utile va da 2 a 100 µV e dipende dalla sincronizzazione dei neuroni : se le cellule ricevono la stessa quantità di eccitazione, ma in istanti temporali diversi, il segnale finale sarà scarso ed irregolare. Se invece i neuroni ricevono la stessa eccitazione nello stesso istante temporale si avrà una sommazione del segnale, che quindi darà un campo elettrico più intenso.
La divisione in sotto-bande: le onde elettroencefalografiche La frequenza del segnale varia da 0.5 a 100 Hz . Generalmente questo intervallo di frequenze viene suddiviso in cinque sotto-bande , poiché si è visto che ad ogni banda corrisponde un tipo di attività cerebrale. In generale le basse frequenze (alte ampiezze) sono associate ad uno stato di “rilassamento”, mentre le alte frequenze (ampiezza minore) sono associate a stati di “attività”.
PH: Mahadeva.it Le onde delta sono associate a uno stato patologico , come il coma; Le onde teta sono associate al sonno profondo ; Le onde alfa sono associate ad uno stato in cui la mente è sveglia ma rilassata ; Le onde beta e gamma sono associate ad uno stato in cui la mente è attiva, concentrata e le aree corticali sono attive .
Post-processing Una volta acquisito il segnale attraverso gli elettrodi, questo non può essere immediatamente utilizzato a causa di due problemi principali: l’ampiezza è ancora troppo bassa e sono presenti degli artefatti . Ciò viene risolto durante l’elaborazione , quando il segnale viene amplificato e filtrato . Per quest’ultima fase si applica un filtro passa alto per eliminare tutte le frequenze più basse e un filtro passa basso che ci permette di evitare il fenomeno di sovrapposizione del segnale (aliasing ).
Applicazione del segnale EEG: la Brain Computer Interface Esistono molte applicazioni dell’EEG. Una tra tutte è la Brain Computer Interface , dove l’EEG si interpone tra il computer e l’essere umano. Un esempio è lo Speller P300 , ovvero un software che ha una matrice 6×6 dentro la quale ci sono lettere, numeri e simboli. Come fa il software a stabilire quale sia la lettera che l’utente vuole scrivere?
PH: openi.nlm.nih.gov Immaginiamo che l’utente voglia scrivere la lettera “A”. Il software illuminerà in modo casuale le colonne e le righe, “ascoltando” il segnale EEG sviluppato dall’utente per ogni colonna e ogni riga illuminata. Poiché l’utente è interessato alla lettera “A”, svilupperà un’onda elettroencefalografica molto particolare ( l’onda P300 ) solo quando verrà illuminata la colonna (o la riga) contenente la lettera “A” . Ma all’interno di quella stessa colonna sono presenti diverse lettere e numeri; come fa il software a capire che l’utente è interessato proprio alla lettera “A”? Incrociando i dati ottenuti dall’illuminazione delle righe.
Questa è una tecnologia principalmente usata da pazienti locked-in e permette di scrivere circa 5 caratteri al minuto, cifra destinata ad aumentare grazie all’enorme ricerca in questo ambito.
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